The Creators: Daedalus and Pygmalion
Gregory Ackles
There has always been a desire by man to act above his human means in order to emulate a higher power or creator. Man seems to attempt to go further than his abilities in order to achieve a goal or desire. These actions occur for numerous reasons and are involved with a diverse amount of situations. They can be performed out of a particular want or need, a self made challenge, as an action to gain something thought to be necessary for survival, or as an attempt to enhance the nature of the human being. In Ovid’s Metamorphoses, he introduces these attempts at creation by man, specifically in the epics of “Daedalus and Icarus” and “Pygmalion”. Both of these stories contain characters acting as creator in order to achieve their respected goals and desires. The course of action differs between these two as well as their objectives. Within Ovid’s Metamorphoses, Daedalus and Pygmalion both alter their roles as humans, as these created beings act as creator, and take matters into their own hands in order to achieve what they desire. With their attempt at acting as creator, isolation plays a role in whether or not they succeed in their attempts of creation.
In Daedalus and Icarus, Ovid introduces creation within a situation of despair, because Daedalus and his son Icarus are exiled on the island of Crete. They are not able to escape anywhere but through the air, as Daedalus states to himself, “King Minos can block / my escape, / by land or water, [...] The air, at least, is still open; / my path lies there” (Ovid VIII.186). With plans of escape in mind, Daedalus begins his role as creator. He “put his mind to techniques unexplored before / and altered the laws of nature” (187-188). This is the first instance of Daedalus stepping out of his abilities as a human, as he has become a creator, enhancing the human nature that has already been created and the limits to what a human can and cannot do have been set. Daedalus begins his creating by “[layering] some / feathers” (188). He is creating wings for himself and Icarus to fly away from the island, a task that obviously was not intended for humans when they were created. Daedalus is taking an ability from other creations, in this case birds, and implementing them for himself and his son.
As he moves along with his work, Daedalus constructs these wings and bounds them “with twine in the middle and wax / at the bottom” (193). Here, wax is seen as significant because of how easily it can be shaped and how it can be transformed into whatever a creator wishes. This detail adds to the importance of the illustration in regards to Daedalus acting as creator. This wax is later seen even more as a tool that can be shaped when Icarus “[softens] the yellow / wax / with his thumb” (197-198). When he had completed his work, Daedalus’ creation of his own wings was seen to “imitate real birds’ wings” (195). Daedalus then “balanced his aged body / on both of his wings, then beat at the air and hovered / suspended” (201-202). With this accomplishment, Daedalus had completed his role as creator, enhancing and altering the abilities of humans.
Continuing with the theme of creation within his Metamorphoses, Ovid presents the happenings of a sculptor named Pygmalion, who desires a woman with beauty and pureness that surpasses the scandalous ways of the women that surround him. Pygmalion is “sick of the vices with which the female sex / has been so richly endowed” (Ovid X.243-244). Because of their immoral lifestyles, he has chosen “to remain unmarried” (246). This life decision serves as the basis of Pygmalion’s choice to act as a creator. Pygmalion had sculpted a “statue in ivory, white as snow, an image of perfect / feminine beauty” (247-248). This is the instance that Pygmalion has taken matters into his own hands. He has become so unsatisfied with the women around him that have been created that the only way for him to alleviate his disgust is to create his own woman, in his own image and likeness. Pygmalion even “fell in love with his own / creation” (248). Ovid later uses language in his description of this story that alludes to creation language. He describes Pygmalion’s statue as a “heavenly woman” (249), as Pygmalion believes her to be real.
Pygmalion treated his creation as she was a real woman, “[kissing] it and thought it was kissing him too” (256). Pygmalion shows off his creator mindset through his constant reverence and care shown towards his creation, as he continuously runs his hands up and down her. Pygmalion cares so much for his creation because he had poured his whole self, mind, and body into it, “[molding her] by human / thumbs” (286). This story further illustrates Ovid’s theme of his characters taking on the role as creator in order to enhance their respected lives and situations.
Both Daedalus and Pygmalion slate themselves as creator in their lives, as they yearn for something greater. This supports the claim that Ovid is attempting to depict how man occasionally desires a greater role in the world or even a higher power to enhance what has already been created. Daedalus was fed up with his exile with Icarus on the island of Crete. He knew the only way to a new life was through the air. Their isolation played a motivational role in the planning to escape by flight. Daedalus and Icarus’ physical isolation brought forth a plan for a better life. Humans were not created with the ability to fly. Daedalus took matters into his own hands and created the ability to fly with his construction of wings. Pygmalion was unsatisfied and disgusted with the prostitutes and women he has encountered in the past. With this hatred in mind, the only way to free himself internally towards women was to create his own perfect sculpture. He treated this work as a real woman, perfect in every aspect and even clothed and kissed her. Pygmalion’s isolation is seen in how he creates his statue alone and away from the rest of the world, which disgusts him. Pygmalion’s desire to remove himself from others allows for his creativity to flourish and for his aspiration to create his perfect woman to become a reality.
These stories both depict two men with visions of a better life. They concluded that the only way to achieve this was to take matters into their own hands and act as creators. These actions serve as examples of man crossing their responsibilities and intentions as created beings. In a sense, they may be acting out of their intended role in the world as humans. Daedalus altered the physical abilities of humans by creating a way to fly through the air, actions meant for other realms of creation. Pygmalion inserted his own likes and visions of what a woman should resemble and created his own perfect female specimen. Both of these epics illustrated the role of creation within Ovid’s Metamorphoses.
Man was created with the intention to roam the earth and utilize everything presented to them by their creator. There has always been a distinction between the creator and the created. The created have acted as creators in the sense of invention of tools or ways to complete tasks. This may include how to harvest food, build shelters, and establish cities, laws, and society. However, these creations generally do not include how to enhance or alter the nature of humanity. This nature includes how a human functions, what abilities they possess, and what limits are set as to what they can and cannot accomplish. Daedalus and Pygmalion both are guilty at attempting to alter these aspects of human nature. They both took matters into their own hands in order to achieve all that they desired in life. In these actions, Daedalus and Pygmalion crossed the line that distinguished the creator with the created.
Daedalus’ actions, which cross the line between creator and created, turn out to bring more hardship than success. These difficulties are foreshadowed when Daedalus is instructing Icarus on how to fly. He tells his son to “listen carefully” (203) and “simply follow [his] lead” (207) in terms of where to fly and how far he can get to the sun without his wings melting. These are instructions that are not natural to Icarus, or any human for that matter. Icarus has never been exposed to the ability of flying because it is not part of the human creation. This is a task that needs to be learned and explained extensively in order to be completed without any flaws or danger. Simply listening to foreign instructions does not merit expert knowledge on how to fly through the air. To further these unnatural human actions, when Daedalus and Icarus have taken flight, Ovid depicts them as not humans, but birds. He describes Daedalus “as a bird / escorting / her fledgeling out of her mountains nest to float on the / breezes” (213-214) Ovid places Daedalus in the role as a mother bird guiding her baby bird through the sky. This is an action that is unnatural to humans, as Daedalus and Icarus are now taking flight through the sky.
Once in the air, the initial goal of soaring through the sky in order to achieve freedom begins to be lost as danger enters the father son journey. Daedalus and Icarus are claimed to be supernatural, as the people who spot them below exclaim, “they certainly / must be gods / to fly through the air!” (218-219). Now Daedalus’ actions have given him and his son god like status by enhancing their abilities and providing a means of flight. Finally, the epic concludes with the death of Icarus, as his lack of concentration and knowledge on how to fly correctly cause him to fall into the ocean. “The wax dissolved; and Icarus flapped his naked arms, / deprived of the wings” (227). This perfectly illustrates why Daedalus was wrong in taking the role of creator and attempting to make the addition of human flight. He put his son in danger by bringing themselves into the air as humans. This is an unnatural environment and ability for humans that Daedalus has presented to the both of them. The death of Icarus illustrates the danger and hardships that came from Daedalus’ desire to take matters in his own hands and take on the role as creator.
In Pygmalion, there is not the same mortal and violent ending as with Icarus, but there is an unnatural occurrence that becomes apparent through the creation of his statue. As he continues his reverence towards his creation, Pygmalion asks the gods for “a woman resembling [his] ivory maiden” (276). He asks for a woman for his own that is living and breathing and that is everything his statue resembles. This plea for help from a higher power exemplifies how Pygmalion’s isolation has affected his actions as a creator. He has built a distrust to all other people and has withdrawn himself and his work from everyone that the only option for aid is to call upon the gods. When Pygmalion returns home, he finds his statues to be transformed into a real woman, exemplifying everything that he created her to be. Pygmalion checks the aspects of her body and signs of life and concludes “she was living flesh!” (289). With his original desire finally achieved, it seems like Pygmalion has successfully taken on the role of creator with the help of Venus, and it has resulted in him receiving everything that he wished to obtain. However, Pygmalion relied on the addition and help of Venus, a higher power, to fully receive his desire. What is unnatural about this conclusion is that Pygmalion overstepped his duties as a human and believed that his thoughts and desires of what a woman should be outweighed how they were depicted in the real world. His ideals were greater than the human nature that had previously been created. This illustrates how Pygmalion distorted in his mind what was right and what was wrong with the females that surrounded him. In addition to this, Pygmalion was so wrapped up in his own creation, which existed in total isolation, that everything else was deemed as unacceptable. These thoughts and actions lead to the gain of Pygmalion’s dream. This instance is
where Pygmalion differs from Daedalus, as the end result includes everything Pygmalion ever wanted when he set out on his journey as a creator.
Ovid’s inclusion of these two stories had many contributions to the Metamorphoses as a whole. Specifically, these were included to display how man took part in creation and how man was able to better the world he had been presented with. Daedalus and Pygmalion provided different occurrences of this theme of the creator and the created, through their touching and molding. Between these, there are some similarities as to how creation played a central role in the subject matter of these stories. In both epics, these men were unsatisfied with the current state of their lives. The only way they could change what was upsetting them was to take action themselves, as any other involvement would have added to their unrest. The basis of their drive pertained to an emotional side of their lives and was risen out of their physical isolation. Daedalus wished to escape from exile and bring his son, whom he loved very much, back to a life of normalcy and one with more human interaction. Pygmalion was addressing his human desire to have companionship, even though he chose a life of solidarity and not marrying a woman due to their filth and impurities. This relationship he sought after would derive from his isolation, as he purposely performed his work hidden from the rest of the world. Pygmalion’s hatred towards humanity and their impurities drew him to create in solidarity. To answer this void, he created his own version of woman, one that met every requirement and aspect that would please him. Both of these epics depict how creation was originated out of a sense of isolation.
One final similarity is the unnatural state that both men found themselves in once they decided they would be their own creator. Daedalus found himself teaching and leading Icarus through the sky, something unknown to human nature. Eventually, this desire as a creator led to
the death of his son. Pygmalion achieved his companion through unnatural means, beginning with the creation of an object, not a human. Once this was completed, Pygmalion’s desires overcame the ivory of his woman, and he asked for a lifelike creature that resembled his statue. To his amazement, he was granted this wish by the gods. Pygmalion went against the natural line of creation, by his statue becoming a woman instead of him finding a woman that was initially created for the purpose of being someone’s partner in life. All of these similarities display the Ovid’s repetitive theme of the created acting as the creator.
These stories bring up the argument of what exactly is the role of humans in the world. How far are humans permitted to go before they cross the line between them and the creator. Daedalus attempts to enhance the nature and physical abilities of the human body by giving him and his son the ability to fly through the air. This is something unheard of in the areas of humanity, which is why Daedalus is guilty of taking on a role not meant for his involvement. Furthermore, this disregard for human ability causes the death of Icarus, an end result not fathomed during Daedalus’ thoughts as a creator. In the case of Pygmalion, he feels like his thoughts and interpretation about the woman in the world is correct and all the impureness surrounding him is causing him to lack the companionship that comes with the human nature. This is the drive that brings Pygmalion to create his own statue and perfect woman who he treats as an actual human. Eventually, he gains this woman as real life flesh and bone, but through an unnatural way with the help of a higher power in Venus. Ovid balances the theme of humanity with fantasy in these two epics, while introducing creation within the lines and actions of characters dealing with their respected forms of isolation. Once these stories conclude, it is apparent that Ovid is suggesting that the end result can vary when man takes on the role of creator. Disastrous endings, as seen with Daedalus, illustrate Ovid’s point that man’s role in life is to live in the world that has been provided by a higher power and not to interfere with matters not designated to humans. More successful endings, specifically with Pygmalion, suggest that in order for man to succeed in his position as a creator, he must receive help from a higher power. Together, these examples insinuate that it is not the place, role, or responsibility of man to act as creator, as that position has previously been occupied by a higher power.
Works Cited
Ovid, and D. A. Raeburn. Metamorphoses: A New Verse Translation. London: Penguin, 2004. Print.
In Daedalus and Icarus, Ovid introduces creation within a situation of despair, because Daedalus and his son Icarus are exiled on the island of Crete. They are not able to escape anywhere but through the air, as Daedalus states to himself, “King Minos can block / my escape, / by land or water, [...] The air, at least, is still open; / my path lies there” (Ovid VIII.186). With plans of escape in mind, Daedalus begins his role as creator. He “put his mind to techniques unexplored before / and altered the laws of nature” (187-188). This is the first instance of Daedalus stepping out of his abilities as a human, as he has become a creator, enhancing the human nature that has already been created and the limits to what a human can and cannot do have been set. Daedalus begins his creating by “[layering] some / feathers” (188). He is creating wings for himself and Icarus to fly away from the island, a task that obviously was not intended for humans when they were created. Daedalus is taking an ability from other creations, in this case birds, and implementing them for himself and his son.
As he moves along with his work, Daedalus constructs these wings and bounds them “with twine in the middle and wax / at the bottom” (193). Here, wax is seen as significant because of how easily it can be shaped and how it can be transformed into whatever a creator wishes. This detail adds to the importance of the illustration in regards to Daedalus acting as creator. This wax is later seen even more as a tool that can be shaped when Icarus “[softens] the yellow / wax / with his thumb” (197-198). When he had completed his work, Daedalus’ creation of his own wings was seen to “imitate real birds’ wings” (195). Daedalus then “balanced his aged body / on both of his wings, then beat at the air and hovered / suspended” (201-202). With this accomplishment, Daedalus had completed his role as creator, enhancing and altering the abilities of humans.
Continuing with the theme of creation within his Metamorphoses, Ovid presents the happenings of a sculptor named Pygmalion, who desires a woman with beauty and pureness that surpasses the scandalous ways of the women that surround him. Pygmalion is “sick of the vices with which the female sex / has been so richly endowed” (Ovid X.243-244). Because of their immoral lifestyles, he has chosen “to remain unmarried” (246). This life decision serves as the basis of Pygmalion’s choice to act as a creator. Pygmalion had sculpted a “statue in ivory, white as snow, an image of perfect / feminine beauty” (247-248). This is the instance that Pygmalion has taken matters into his own hands. He has become so unsatisfied with the women around him that have been created that the only way for him to alleviate his disgust is to create his own woman, in his own image and likeness. Pygmalion even “fell in love with his own / creation” (248). Ovid later uses language in his description of this story that alludes to creation language. He describes Pygmalion’s statue as a “heavenly woman” (249), as Pygmalion believes her to be real.
Pygmalion treated his creation as she was a real woman, “[kissing] it and thought it was kissing him too” (256). Pygmalion shows off his creator mindset through his constant reverence and care shown towards his creation, as he continuously runs his hands up and down her. Pygmalion cares so much for his creation because he had poured his whole self, mind, and body into it, “[molding her] by human / thumbs” (286). This story further illustrates Ovid’s theme of his characters taking on the role as creator in order to enhance their respected lives and situations.
Both Daedalus and Pygmalion slate themselves as creator in their lives, as they yearn for something greater. This supports the claim that Ovid is attempting to depict how man occasionally desires a greater role in the world or even a higher power to enhance what has already been created. Daedalus was fed up with his exile with Icarus on the island of Crete. He knew the only way to a new life was through the air. Their isolation played a motivational role in the planning to escape by flight. Daedalus and Icarus’ physical isolation brought forth a plan for a better life. Humans were not created with the ability to fly. Daedalus took matters into his own hands and created the ability to fly with his construction of wings. Pygmalion was unsatisfied and disgusted with the prostitutes and women he has encountered in the past. With this hatred in mind, the only way to free himself internally towards women was to create his own perfect sculpture. He treated this work as a real woman, perfect in every aspect and even clothed and kissed her. Pygmalion’s isolation is seen in how he creates his statue alone and away from the rest of the world, which disgusts him. Pygmalion’s desire to remove himself from others allows for his creativity to flourish and for his aspiration to create his perfect woman to become a reality.
These stories both depict two men with visions of a better life. They concluded that the only way to achieve this was to take matters into their own hands and act as creators. These actions serve as examples of man crossing their responsibilities and intentions as created beings. In a sense, they may be acting out of their intended role in the world as humans. Daedalus altered the physical abilities of humans by creating a way to fly through the air, actions meant for other realms of creation. Pygmalion inserted his own likes and visions of what a woman should resemble and created his own perfect female specimen. Both of these epics illustrated the role of creation within Ovid’s Metamorphoses.
Man was created with the intention to roam the earth and utilize everything presented to them by their creator. There has always been a distinction between the creator and the created. The created have acted as creators in the sense of invention of tools or ways to complete tasks. This may include how to harvest food, build shelters, and establish cities, laws, and society. However, these creations generally do not include how to enhance or alter the nature of humanity. This nature includes how a human functions, what abilities they possess, and what limits are set as to what they can and cannot accomplish. Daedalus and Pygmalion both are guilty at attempting to alter these aspects of human nature. They both took matters into their own hands in order to achieve all that they desired in life. In these actions, Daedalus and Pygmalion crossed the line that distinguished the creator with the created.
Daedalus’ actions, which cross the line between creator and created, turn out to bring more hardship than success. These difficulties are foreshadowed when Daedalus is instructing Icarus on how to fly. He tells his son to “listen carefully” (203) and “simply follow [his] lead” (207) in terms of where to fly and how far he can get to the sun without his wings melting. These are instructions that are not natural to Icarus, or any human for that matter. Icarus has never been exposed to the ability of flying because it is not part of the human creation. This is a task that needs to be learned and explained extensively in order to be completed without any flaws or danger. Simply listening to foreign instructions does not merit expert knowledge on how to fly through the air. To further these unnatural human actions, when Daedalus and Icarus have taken flight, Ovid depicts them as not humans, but birds. He describes Daedalus “as a bird / escorting / her fledgeling out of her mountains nest to float on the / breezes” (213-214) Ovid places Daedalus in the role as a mother bird guiding her baby bird through the sky. This is an action that is unnatural to humans, as Daedalus and Icarus are now taking flight through the sky.
Once in the air, the initial goal of soaring through the sky in order to achieve freedom begins to be lost as danger enters the father son journey. Daedalus and Icarus are claimed to be supernatural, as the people who spot them below exclaim, “they certainly / must be gods / to fly through the air!” (218-219). Now Daedalus’ actions have given him and his son god like status by enhancing their abilities and providing a means of flight. Finally, the epic concludes with the death of Icarus, as his lack of concentration and knowledge on how to fly correctly cause him to fall into the ocean. “The wax dissolved; and Icarus flapped his naked arms, / deprived of the wings” (227). This perfectly illustrates why Daedalus was wrong in taking the role of creator and attempting to make the addition of human flight. He put his son in danger by bringing themselves into the air as humans. This is an unnatural environment and ability for humans that Daedalus has presented to the both of them. The death of Icarus illustrates the danger and hardships that came from Daedalus’ desire to take matters in his own hands and take on the role as creator.
In Pygmalion, there is not the same mortal and violent ending as with Icarus, but there is an unnatural occurrence that becomes apparent through the creation of his statue. As he continues his reverence towards his creation, Pygmalion asks the gods for “a woman resembling [his] ivory maiden” (276). He asks for a woman for his own that is living and breathing and that is everything his statue resembles. This plea for help from a higher power exemplifies how Pygmalion’s isolation has affected his actions as a creator. He has built a distrust to all other people and has withdrawn himself and his work from everyone that the only option for aid is to call upon the gods. When Pygmalion returns home, he finds his statues to be transformed into a real woman, exemplifying everything that he created her to be. Pygmalion checks the aspects of her body and signs of life and concludes “she was living flesh!” (289). With his original desire finally achieved, it seems like Pygmalion has successfully taken on the role of creator with the help of Venus, and it has resulted in him receiving everything that he wished to obtain. However, Pygmalion relied on the addition and help of Venus, a higher power, to fully receive his desire. What is unnatural about this conclusion is that Pygmalion overstepped his duties as a human and believed that his thoughts and desires of what a woman should be outweighed how they were depicted in the real world. His ideals were greater than the human nature that had previously been created. This illustrates how Pygmalion distorted in his mind what was right and what was wrong with the females that surrounded him. In addition to this, Pygmalion was so wrapped up in his own creation, which existed in total isolation, that everything else was deemed as unacceptable. These thoughts and actions lead to the gain of Pygmalion’s dream. This instance is
where Pygmalion differs from Daedalus, as the end result includes everything Pygmalion ever wanted when he set out on his journey as a creator.
Ovid’s inclusion of these two stories had many contributions to the Metamorphoses as a whole. Specifically, these were included to display how man took part in creation and how man was able to better the world he had been presented with. Daedalus and Pygmalion provided different occurrences of this theme of the creator and the created, through their touching and molding. Between these, there are some similarities as to how creation played a central role in the subject matter of these stories. In both epics, these men were unsatisfied with the current state of their lives. The only way they could change what was upsetting them was to take action themselves, as any other involvement would have added to their unrest. The basis of their drive pertained to an emotional side of their lives and was risen out of their physical isolation. Daedalus wished to escape from exile and bring his son, whom he loved very much, back to a life of normalcy and one with more human interaction. Pygmalion was addressing his human desire to have companionship, even though he chose a life of solidarity and not marrying a woman due to their filth and impurities. This relationship he sought after would derive from his isolation, as he purposely performed his work hidden from the rest of the world. Pygmalion’s hatred towards humanity and their impurities drew him to create in solidarity. To answer this void, he created his own version of woman, one that met every requirement and aspect that would please him. Both of these epics depict how creation was originated out of a sense of isolation.
One final similarity is the unnatural state that both men found themselves in once they decided they would be their own creator. Daedalus found himself teaching and leading Icarus through the sky, something unknown to human nature. Eventually, this desire as a creator led to
the death of his son. Pygmalion achieved his companion through unnatural means, beginning with the creation of an object, not a human. Once this was completed, Pygmalion’s desires overcame the ivory of his woman, and he asked for a lifelike creature that resembled his statue. To his amazement, he was granted this wish by the gods. Pygmalion went against the natural line of creation, by his statue becoming a woman instead of him finding a woman that was initially created for the purpose of being someone’s partner in life. All of these similarities display the Ovid’s repetitive theme of the created acting as the creator.
These stories bring up the argument of what exactly is the role of humans in the world. How far are humans permitted to go before they cross the line between them and the creator. Daedalus attempts to enhance the nature and physical abilities of the human body by giving him and his son the ability to fly through the air. This is something unheard of in the areas of humanity, which is why Daedalus is guilty of taking on a role not meant for his involvement. Furthermore, this disregard for human ability causes the death of Icarus, an end result not fathomed during Daedalus’ thoughts as a creator. In the case of Pygmalion, he feels like his thoughts and interpretation about the woman in the world is correct and all the impureness surrounding him is causing him to lack the companionship that comes with the human nature. This is the drive that brings Pygmalion to create his own statue and perfect woman who he treats as an actual human. Eventually, he gains this woman as real life flesh and bone, but through an unnatural way with the help of a higher power in Venus. Ovid balances the theme of humanity with fantasy in these two epics, while introducing creation within the lines and actions of characters dealing with their respected forms of isolation. Once these stories conclude, it is apparent that Ovid is suggesting that the end result can vary when man takes on the role of creator. Disastrous endings, as seen with Daedalus, illustrate Ovid’s point that man’s role in life is to live in the world that has been provided by a higher power and not to interfere with matters not designated to humans. More successful endings, specifically with Pygmalion, suggest that in order for man to succeed in his position as a creator, he must receive help from a higher power. Together, these examples insinuate that it is not the place, role, or responsibility of man to act as creator, as that position has previously been occupied by a higher power.
Works Cited
Ovid, and D. A. Raeburn. Metamorphoses: A New Verse Translation. London: Penguin, 2004. Print.