Gender and Sexuality in Restoration England
An Examination of Behn, Rochester, and Portraiture
Raymond Moylan
Sophomore, College of Arts and Sciences
Introduction
In England’s Restoration era, the reinstatement of Charles II and the British monarchy following an eleven-year tenure of the Commonwealth of England created a contentious environment surrounding England’s national identity. From this tenuous landscape which balanced royalist and republican sentiments sprung a wealth of daring, novel, and even explicit literature that expanded the boundaries of written imagination in the realms of gender and sexuality. John Wilmot, Second Earl of Rochester led and pioneered this movement into overt representations of sex in literature as well as life. Indeed, Rochester embodied libertine philosophy gaining much of his notoriety from his frequent alcoholic indulgence and promiscuity. It is important, however, that we not overlook Rochester’s literary and intellectual merit. Stephen Greenblatt in the Norton Anthology of English Literature v.1 contends that Rochester was famous for his Restoration-era wit which constituted “not only a clever turn of phrase but mental capacity and intellectual power.”1 While Rochester’s prowess, notoriety, and obscenity are adequately noted, one must necessarily consider a contemporary whose literature, interplay with Rochester, and status as a woman also factor into the sexually liberalizing world of the Restoration.
Aphra Behn boldly entered the literary sphere in an environment that had only just begun to allow women to act on stage, and became the first woman to earn her way as a professional writer. Though much of her early life remains a mystery, Behn’s career as a playwright and poet alone distinguish her as a prolific female figure emerging during the Restoration. In an atmosphere unwelcoming to women, Behn wrote in dialogue with Rochester, matched his risqué
style, and fiercely battled critique. Through an analysis of the interplay between Rochester and Behn, one encounters a pair of fascinating examples of two individuals unapologetically failing to conform to traditional gender roles of the era. In this paper, I will primarily examine how both Behn and Rochester conceptualize gender roles in each their respective bodies of work. Additionally, I will consider the pair of poems “The Imperfect Enjoyment” by Rochester and “The Disappointment” by Behn to further explicate their conceptions of gender roles. This comparison will also give insight to the interpersonal dynamics between Behn and Rochester as literary contemporaries. Finally, this discussion will occur against the backdrop of accepted gender roles in 17th century England to contend that Behn and Rochester were figureheads in a sexually liberalizing environment that challenged and transformed traditional gender roles and sexual practices.
Gender Roles and Sexuality in the Restoration
To begin comprehending the complex gender roles of the 17th century, one must first consider the shifting environment experienced by men and women in Restoration England. Will Pritchard identifies two catalysts in this dynamic atmosphere: Charles II’s return to England which “ushered in a simultaneous revival and transformation of the Cavalier ideal into something closer to libertinism,” along with the emergence of professional women actresses in London.2 This marked an introduction of women into the public sphere from a more conservative domestic role, increasing the amount of attention concentrated on the actions and appearances of women in a highly visible arena. Pritchard confirms this: “To put it another way, just at the moment some women became actresses, all women became actresses.”3 This quote attests to a heightened attention devoted to the physical appearance of women in Restoration London, amplified by the simultaneous infusion of libertine philosophies. Though the introduction of female actresses to professional theater marked a significant occurrence, it did not serve to empower the women toward equity nor equality. Rather, it further stratified the gender roles of the day and articulated the already clear lines separating norms for acceptable male and female behavior. Given that this notable entrance into the public sphere occurred alongside the proliferation of libertine ideals, the Restoration era saw the rapid sexualization of the female figure, which is exemplified not only through the works of libertine figurehead Rochester, but also through trends in the portraits of the era.
In Portraiture
In sharp contrast to the prior depictions of women, Restoration England ushered in a noticeably sexual shift in the artistic representations of the female form in portraiture. Most notably in this trend is the tendency for portraitists to paint women with partially or entirely exposed breasts. For example, in the portrait Arthur Capel, 1st Earl of Essex; Elizabeth, Countess of Essex, the countess is portrayed beside her husband with the top of her dress open, revealing a large portion of her décolletage. This is a marked difference to prior English portraits of women, which conservatively preserved the female figure by often including a tight collar. In addition, unlike her husband Arthur who makes direct eye contact with the viewer, Elizabeth’s eyes are drawn away from the center of the portrait and are directed towards a sword in the earl’s hands. Arthur’s sword is clearly featured in the foreground of the portrait and could serve to symbolize an assertion of the count’s manhood.4 This represents further evidence of the sexually liberalizedculture and libertine attitudes of the Restoration era. Women’s entrance into the public sphere provided ample opportunity for libertines of the day to sexualize women based on their outward appearances, and this preoccupation with the female exterior is largely represented in portraiture. Yet, this portrait also extends valuable insight into the gender roles of the Restoration resulting from evident sexualization of the female exterior.
This portrait, believed to be produced between c. 1655-1660, resides just prior to the reinstatement of Charles II. As a result, the themes detailing the beginnings of a sexually liberalized atmosphere, later accelerated by the libertinism of the Restoration, are evident. Yet, the portrait, having been painted prior to the first female professional actors, still retains the vestiges of a period in which women had not fully entered the public sphere. This is illustrated through the contrast between the Earl’s and Countess’ respective attire and the differing backgrounds behind the male and female individual. The Earl of Essex appears fully dressed, with sword in hand, ready for public attention and scrutiny. On the other hand, the Countess wears either a night robe or a similarly private piece of attire. Moreover, the Earl stands in front of a nature scene, symbolizing the outside world and public arena, in contrast to the curtained backdrop behind the Countess, noting her primary involvement in the private sphere. In sum, this portrait holds both themes of the sexually liberalizing culture around the Restoration, and the traditional gender roles from which Rochester and Behn deviate in their respective bodies of work.
In Rochester
Within the Restoration period, there exists no better model for the sexually liberalizing and morally questionable practices than John Wilmot, 2nd Earl of Rochester. Steven N. Zwicker describes him as “a sublime object of story and scandal,”5 while Tim Harris similarly paints Rochester as “a notorious rake, heavy drinker and a scoffer at religion and of the religious.”6 This figurehead and embodiment of libertine philosophy stood at the forefront of the sexually liberalizing climate of the Restoration. As a result, his literary contributions, which verge on the obscene, provide a fascinating expose of the gender roles and expectations surrounding female conduct in the Restoration. Two poems in particular serve to reveal components of how Rochester, as a libertine, conceptualizes gender roles, dynamics, and expectations: “A Song of a Young Lady to her Ancient Lover” and “The Imperfect Enjoyment.” The former will be discussed here, while the latter will be considered later in this paper in the context of Behn and Rochester’s personal relationship as an example of gender dynamics in the Restoration.
In “A Song of a Young Lady to her Ancient Lover,” Rochester assumes the identity of a woman and speaks from the point of view of a female narrator smitten with a man much older than her. Within this narrative, Rochester expertly balances a loving tone describing the affection between the young lover and her elderly partner, while also humorously noting the sexual misadventures in their relationship:
Thy nobler parts which but to name
In owr Sex would be Counted shame,
By ages frozen grasp possest
From their Ice shall be releast
And sooth’d by my reviveing hand
In former warmth and Vigour stand.7
In this stanza, Rochester, amidst his characteristic lewd verse, provides an excellent account of how gender roles were construed in Restoration England. In the first two lines, he directly addresses certain taboos which can be discussed by men but not women, noting the limitations surrounding female speech. Furthermore, in this scenario, the young lover gladly shoulders the burden of providing pleasure to her ancient lover by returning him to his “former warmth and Vigour.” Rochester, as a male author, provides a construction of typical gender roles where the woman is an able and willing sexual servant to her male counterpart. It is through this witty poem that the reader not only receives an account of love within a drastic age disparity, but also a demonstration of gender roles in the Restoration a la Rochester.
In Behn
As mentioned previously, Aphra Behn emerged as a notable figure of the Restoration, contributing many works as the first professional female playwright and poet. In this male-dominated environment, Behn proved her mettle and matched the risqué style of her contemporary Rochester, a distinct contrast to other female writers of the period who favored more modest subject matter. As a result of conscribing to obscenity of the libertine movement, Behn faced substantial criticism. Janet Todd notes, “Behn was most often damned for monstrously writing like men; she was castigated as personally unfeminine by major authors such as Pope, Johnson, and Richardson.”8 This characterization of Behn as “unfeminine” attests to the gendered expectations for women to write specifically in a modest style. Behn significantly deviated from such gender norms first, through her professional career as a writer in itself, and second, through her daring choice to write within an obscene libertine framework. Similar to Rochester’s piece, Behn’s “On a Juniper Tree, cut down to make Busks” addresses the liberalizing sexual environment of the Restoration while simultaneously providing an authentic female perspective on the gender roles and expectations in that same period.
In “On a Juniper Tree, cut down to make Busks,” Behn narrates through the eponymous juniper tree whose shade provides shelter and privacy to a pair of lovers, Philocles and Cloris, who copulate beneath its branches. The tree observes their interchange and comments on the gender dynamics of their intercourse, lamenting the aggressive approach of Philocles:
Impatient he waits no consent
But what she gave by languishment,
The blessed minute he pursued,
Whilst love her fear and shame subdued;
And now transported in his arms,
Yields to the conqueror all her charms,9
In this observation, Philocles, using his male prowess to elicit sexual gains from Cloris, is later described as a “conqueror” who “waits no consent.” This clearly outlines gender roles in sexual encounters of the male as a dominant figure over a more submissive female persona. However, this scene is not portrayed as a rape, and it is important to note that Cloris is in fact a willing partner to Philocles. Nevertheless, Behn’s depiction of a sexual encounter in this manner aligns with the libertine attitudes of the period which considered women primarily through their outward appearance as a means to sexual pleasure. Another intriguing facet of this poem is the fate of the narrating juniper tree.
At the end of this poem, Cloris harvests the narrator and utilizes the wood of the juniper tree to create busks, defined as strips of wood or other rigid material “attached vertically to the front section of a corset so as to stiffen and support it. Hence, occasionally the corset itself.”10 In this case, the voyeuristic juniper tree serves a final purpose of guarding the female figure Cloris: “My body into busks was turned: / Where I still guard the sacred store, / And of Loves temple keep the door.”11 This provides an intriguing turn of events where the narrator, after witnessing the intercourse of Cloris and Philocles, becomes a mechanism of preserving modesty surrounding the female figure, or at minimum, a barrier for future male lovers. In sum, the martyrdom of the juniper tree to serve and protect Cloris perhaps constitutes Behn’s response to libertine patterns of behavior in the Restoration that continually prioritized sexual encounters from a male viewpoint and minimized the female’s position.
In Rochester and Behn
Though Behn’s and Rochester’s bodies of work independently hold significant merit and explicate the sexual dynamics of gender roles in the Restoration, it is through their correspondence and interplay that the most interesting expose is found. More than simple contemporaries, it is believed that Rochester and Behn were acquaintances, though the substance of their relationship is up for debate. Regardless, Behn did emerge into literary prominence close to the end of Rochester’s life, and did so by matching the poetic stature of the libertine writers of the day. Ros Ballaster attests, “Behn’s ability to charm on paper is indicated by the fact that a number of Behn’s poems were published in the miscellany Poems Upon Several Occasions of 1680 on Rochester’s death, and a number were ascribed to his pen for many years.”12 Behn writes one such poem, “The Disappointment,” in response to a Rochester piece “The Imperfect Enjoyment.” Both these works construct a narrative in which, amidst intercourse, the man experiences impotence; however, Behn and Rochester each describe this unfortunate occurrence through a female and male lens, respectively. Alone, each poem would provide an interesting illustration of the gender roles and sexual dynamics of the Restoration, but together, the literary, historical, and cultural importance is greatly amplified.
In these two poems, the gender roles and libertine culture of the Restoration can be best analyzed through a comparison of two excerpts within the narratives of impotence. First, in “The Imperfect Enjoyment,” Rochester guides his narrator through initial moments of shame as his female partner chastises him for his inability to perform, yet this is quickly followed by rage, not directed at the woman but rather at the narrator himself and his own inability. Similarly, in “The Disappointment,” upon discovering his impotence, the male figure Lysander is notably upset and disappointed; however, the woman Cloris has a much stronger reaction to her lover’s inability and proceeds to flee the scene.
“The Imperfect Enjoyment” “The Disappointment”
When, with a thousand kisses wandering o’er Than Cloris her fair hand withdrew,
My panting bosom, “Is there then no more?” Finding that god of her desires
She cries. “All this to love and rapture’s due; Disarmed of all his awful fires,
Must we not pay a debt to pleasure too?” And cold as flowers bathed in the morning dew.
But I, the most forlorn, lost man alive, Who can the nymph’s confusion guess?
To show my wished obedience vainly strive: The blood forsook the hinder place,
I sigh, alas! And kiss, but cannot swive. And strewed with blushes all her face,
Eager desires confound my first intent Which both disdain and shame expressed:
Succeeding shame does more success prevent, And from Lysander’s arms she fled,
And rage at last confirms me impotent.13 Leaving him fainting on the gloomy bed.14
The contrasting reactions in these two excerpts gives insight to the gender dynamics of the period. Although each poem is written in a humorous nature, one notes the distinctly different reactions by the female figures in each poem. For Rochester, the woman exhibits slight exasperation at her male partner’s shortcomings, but the remainder of the poem centers on the man’s shame and rage at his impotence in authentic romantic situations. Admittedly, such an occurrence would provide substantial embarrassment for the male figure involved, which Rochester adequately illustrates. Yet, he fails to fully portray the emotions experienced by the woman in this poem. Following her initial quote of frustration, the female figure melts away in the rest of the narrative, leaving the man’s perspective to take precedence, in contrast to Behn’s poem which instead favors the female reaction.
Rather than focus on the male persona’s range of negative emotions, Behn considers the disappointment and embarrassment experienced by her female figure Cloris at being rudely withdrawn from a sexual encounter by her partner’s failure to perform. Consenting to intercourse and then being thoroughly disappointed would have undoubtedly left Cloris with a rash of complex, negative emotions. Behn alludes to such reactions in the above excerpt. This offers an invaluable perspective in a Restoration environment otherwise dominated by male writers. As previously mentioned, while Behn was not the sole female writer of the period, she was the only woman to match the risqué nature of libertine authorship and challenge the male monopoly in that area of literature. Through “The Disappointment,” Behn offers authentic female representation in the sexual arena of 17th century England. Although, Rochester creatively and expertly speaks through women narrators in poems like the aforementioned “A Song of a Young Lady to her Ancient Lover,” he cannot recreate the authenticity found in Behn’s writings. As such, Behn’s poetry grants a refreshing, valid representation of female opinion within a libertine environment that otherwise does not give sufficient voice to women of the period.
Conclusion
The environment of Restoration England housed a significant trend of sexual liberalization as represented in the libertine attitudes and writings of Rochester, Behn, and others. This change was catalyzed by the reinstatement of Charles II to the throne of England along with the first allowance of female actors on the British stage. This introduction into the public sphere created a more visible role for women in the latter half of the 17th century, creating an increased focus on the outward female appearance and an eventual increased sexualization of the female form. As represented through portraiture, Behn’s poetry, and Rochester’s writings, the libertine climate of Restoration England elevated the circulation of risqué art and literature. It is through these mediums that one constructs a knowledge of Restoration-era gender roles.
The emergence of women onto the stage and the prolific stance of Aphra Behn as the first professional female writer are notable achievements that can be lauded as significant occurrences in a timeline toward gender equality. However, these two events existed within an environment that primarily prized male sexual pleasure and emotion. The entrance of women into the public sphere precipitated rampant sexualization of the female exterior and further stratified the two sexes. Rochester serves as an embodiment of the libertine attitudes which furthered the sexually liberalizing environment. Additionally, expectations of Behn to write in a feminine manner and the subsequent criticism received when she deviated from that norm also attest to a fortification of the existing binary that informed the gender roles of the Restoration. The works of Behn and Rochester serve as witness to the sharp change experienced by Restoration England when women began to appear more in the public sphere. However, this shift did not result in a move toward gender equality; rather, it morphed the existing gender roles and placed them in a more visible and sexualized context. This does not mean that the female figure had not previously been sexualized, rather, that it became more apparent and well-documented through this period, as facilitated by libertinism. This trend represents an integral moment in a timeline toward gender equality, one that should not be viewed as a direct precursor to any particular movement. Instead, it should be branded a contributing factor to the complex culture surrounding gender roles and sexuality in the modern era, one that must be considered when grappling with current stereotypes and inequalities.
1. Stephen Greenblatt, The Norton Anthology of English Literature v. 1, ed. Stephen Greenblatt (New York: W.W. Norton & Company Ltd., 2012), 2296.
2. Will Pritchard, Outward Appearances: The Female Exterior in Restoration London (Lewisburg: Bucknell University Press, 2008), 22.
3. Ibid., 27.
4. Sir Peter Lely. Arthur Capel, 1st Earl of Essex; Elizabeth, Countess of Essex. c. 1655-1660, oil on canvas, National Portrait Gallery, London. Retrieved from https://www.npg.org.uk/collections/search/portraitLarge/mw07351/Arthur-Capel-1st-Earl-of-Essex-Elizabeth-Countess-of-Essex?LinkID=mp02697&role=art&rNo=7
5. Steven N. Zwicker, “Lord Rochester: a life in gossip,” in Lord Rochester in the Restoration World, ed. Matthew C. Augustine and Steven N. Zwicker (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015), 79.
6. Tim Harris, “Sexual and religious libertinism in Restoration England,” in Lord Rochester in the Restoration World, ed. Matthew C. Augustine and Steven N. Zwicker (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015), 163.
7. John Wilmot, 2nd Earl of Rochester, “A Song of a Young Lady to her Ancient Lover,” in The Works of John Wilmot, Earl of Rochester ed. Harold Love (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), 30.
8. Janet Todd. “Behn, Aphra [Aphara],” Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (2004), doi: 10.1093.
9. Aphra Behn, “On a Juniper Tree, cut down to make Busks,” in Aphra Behn: Selected Poems, ed. Malcolm Hicks (New York: Routledge, 2003), 8.
10. “Busk, n. 3,” Oxford English Dictionary, Accessed December 9, 2017. http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/25232?rskey=0GOTWj&result=3&isAdvanced=false#eid.
11. Aphra Behn, “On a Juniper Tree, cut down to make Busks,” in Aphra Behn: Selected Poems, ed. Malcolm Hicks (New York: Routledge, 2003), 9.
12. Ros Ballaster, “Rochester, Behn and Enlightenment liberty.” In Lord Rochester in the Restoration World, ed. Matthew C. Augustine and Steven N. Zwicker. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015), 210-11.
13. John Wilmot, 2nd Earl of Rochester, “The Imperfect Enjoyment,” in The Norton Anthology of English Literature v. 1, ed. Stephen Greenblatt (New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 2012), 2299.
14. Aphra Behn, “The Disappointment,” The Norton Anthology of English Literature v. 1, ed. Stephen Greenblatt (New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 2012), 2312.
Bibliography
Ballaster, Ros, “Rochester, Behn and Enlightenment liberty.” In Lord Rochester in the Restoration World, edited by Matthew C. Augustine and Steven N. Zwicker, 207. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015.
Behn, Aphra, “On a Juniper Tree, cut down to make Busks.” In Aphra Behn: Selected Poems, edited by Malcolm Hicks, 7. New York: Routledge, 2003.
Behn, Aphra, “The Disappointment.” In The Norton Anthology of English Literature v. 1, edited by Stephen Greenblatt, 2310. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 2012.
“Busk, n. 3.” Oxford English Dictionary. Accessed December 9, 2017. http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/25232?rskey=0GOTWj&result=3&isAdvanced=false#e.
Greenblatt, Stephen. The Norton Anthology of English Literature v. 1, Edited by Stephen Greenblatt. New York: WW. Norton & Company, 2012.
Harris, Tim, “Sexual and religious libertinism in Restoration England.” In Lord Rochester in the Restoration World, edited by Matthew C. Augustine and Steven N. Zwicker, 162. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015.
Lely, Sir Peter, Arthur Capel, 1st Earl of Essex; Elizabeth, Countess of Essex. c. 1655-1660, National Portrait Gallery, London. Retrieved from https://www.npg.org.uk/collections/search/portraitLarge/mw07351/Arthur-Capel-1st-Earl-of-Essex-Elizabeth-Countess-of-Essex? LinkID=mp02697&role=art&rNo=7.
Pritchard, Will. Outward Appearances: The Female Exterior in Restoration London. Lewisburg: Bucknell University Press, 2008.
Todd, Janet. “Behn, Aphra [Aphara].” Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, (2004): doi: 10.1093
Wilmot, John, “A Song of a Young Lady to her Ancient Lover.” In The Works of John Wilmot, Earl of Rochester, edited by Harold Love, 30. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999.
Wilmot, John, “The Imperfect Enjoyment.” In The Norton Anthology of English Literature v. 1, edited by Stephen Greenblatt, 2298. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 2012.
Zwicker, Steven N., “Lord Rochester: a life in gossip.” In Lord Rochester in the Restoration World, edited by Matthew C. Augustine and Steven N. Zwicker, 79. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015.
In England’s Restoration era, the reinstatement of Charles II and the British monarchy following an eleven-year tenure of the Commonwealth of England created a contentious environment surrounding England’s national identity. From this tenuous landscape which balanced royalist and republican sentiments sprung a wealth of daring, novel, and even explicit literature that expanded the boundaries of written imagination in the realms of gender and sexuality. John Wilmot, Second Earl of Rochester led and pioneered this movement into overt representations of sex in literature as well as life. Indeed, Rochester embodied libertine philosophy gaining much of his notoriety from his frequent alcoholic indulgence and promiscuity. It is important, however, that we not overlook Rochester’s literary and intellectual merit. Stephen Greenblatt in the Norton Anthology of English Literature v.1 contends that Rochester was famous for his Restoration-era wit which constituted “not only a clever turn of phrase but mental capacity and intellectual power.”1 While Rochester’s prowess, notoriety, and obscenity are adequately noted, one must necessarily consider a contemporary whose literature, interplay with Rochester, and status as a woman also factor into the sexually liberalizing world of the Restoration.
Aphra Behn boldly entered the literary sphere in an environment that had only just begun to allow women to act on stage, and became the first woman to earn her way as a professional writer. Though much of her early life remains a mystery, Behn’s career as a playwright and poet alone distinguish her as a prolific female figure emerging during the Restoration. In an atmosphere unwelcoming to women, Behn wrote in dialogue with Rochester, matched his risqué
style, and fiercely battled critique. Through an analysis of the interplay between Rochester and Behn, one encounters a pair of fascinating examples of two individuals unapologetically failing to conform to traditional gender roles of the era. In this paper, I will primarily examine how both Behn and Rochester conceptualize gender roles in each their respective bodies of work. Additionally, I will consider the pair of poems “The Imperfect Enjoyment” by Rochester and “The Disappointment” by Behn to further explicate their conceptions of gender roles. This comparison will also give insight to the interpersonal dynamics between Behn and Rochester as literary contemporaries. Finally, this discussion will occur against the backdrop of accepted gender roles in 17th century England to contend that Behn and Rochester were figureheads in a sexually liberalizing environment that challenged and transformed traditional gender roles and sexual practices.
Gender Roles and Sexuality in the Restoration
To begin comprehending the complex gender roles of the 17th century, one must first consider the shifting environment experienced by men and women in Restoration England. Will Pritchard identifies two catalysts in this dynamic atmosphere: Charles II’s return to England which “ushered in a simultaneous revival and transformation of the Cavalier ideal into something closer to libertinism,” along with the emergence of professional women actresses in London.2 This marked an introduction of women into the public sphere from a more conservative domestic role, increasing the amount of attention concentrated on the actions and appearances of women in a highly visible arena. Pritchard confirms this: “To put it another way, just at the moment some women became actresses, all women became actresses.”3 This quote attests to a heightened attention devoted to the physical appearance of women in Restoration London, amplified by the simultaneous infusion of libertine philosophies. Though the introduction of female actresses to professional theater marked a significant occurrence, it did not serve to empower the women toward equity nor equality. Rather, it further stratified the gender roles of the day and articulated the already clear lines separating norms for acceptable male and female behavior. Given that this notable entrance into the public sphere occurred alongside the proliferation of libertine ideals, the Restoration era saw the rapid sexualization of the female figure, which is exemplified not only through the works of libertine figurehead Rochester, but also through trends in the portraits of the era.
In Portraiture
In sharp contrast to the prior depictions of women, Restoration England ushered in a noticeably sexual shift in the artistic representations of the female form in portraiture. Most notably in this trend is the tendency for portraitists to paint women with partially or entirely exposed breasts. For example, in the portrait Arthur Capel, 1st Earl of Essex; Elizabeth, Countess of Essex, the countess is portrayed beside her husband with the top of her dress open, revealing a large portion of her décolletage. This is a marked difference to prior English portraits of women, which conservatively preserved the female figure by often including a tight collar. In addition, unlike her husband Arthur who makes direct eye contact with the viewer, Elizabeth’s eyes are drawn away from the center of the portrait and are directed towards a sword in the earl’s hands. Arthur’s sword is clearly featured in the foreground of the portrait and could serve to symbolize an assertion of the count’s manhood.4 This represents further evidence of the sexually liberalizedculture and libertine attitudes of the Restoration era. Women’s entrance into the public sphere provided ample opportunity for libertines of the day to sexualize women based on their outward appearances, and this preoccupation with the female exterior is largely represented in portraiture. Yet, this portrait also extends valuable insight into the gender roles of the Restoration resulting from evident sexualization of the female exterior.
This portrait, believed to be produced between c. 1655-1660, resides just prior to the reinstatement of Charles II. As a result, the themes detailing the beginnings of a sexually liberalized atmosphere, later accelerated by the libertinism of the Restoration, are evident. Yet, the portrait, having been painted prior to the first female professional actors, still retains the vestiges of a period in which women had not fully entered the public sphere. This is illustrated through the contrast between the Earl’s and Countess’ respective attire and the differing backgrounds behind the male and female individual. The Earl of Essex appears fully dressed, with sword in hand, ready for public attention and scrutiny. On the other hand, the Countess wears either a night robe or a similarly private piece of attire. Moreover, the Earl stands in front of a nature scene, symbolizing the outside world and public arena, in contrast to the curtained backdrop behind the Countess, noting her primary involvement in the private sphere. In sum, this portrait holds both themes of the sexually liberalizing culture around the Restoration, and the traditional gender roles from which Rochester and Behn deviate in their respective bodies of work.
In Rochester
Within the Restoration period, there exists no better model for the sexually liberalizing and morally questionable practices than John Wilmot, 2nd Earl of Rochester. Steven N. Zwicker describes him as “a sublime object of story and scandal,”5 while Tim Harris similarly paints Rochester as “a notorious rake, heavy drinker and a scoffer at religion and of the religious.”6 This figurehead and embodiment of libertine philosophy stood at the forefront of the sexually liberalizing climate of the Restoration. As a result, his literary contributions, which verge on the obscene, provide a fascinating expose of the gender roles and expectations surrounding female conduct in the Restoration. Two poems in particular serve to reveal components of how Rochester, as a libertine, conceptualizes gender roles, dynamics, and expectations: “A Song of a Young Lady to her Ancient Lover” and “The Imperfect Enjoyment.” The former will be discussed here, while the latter will be considered later in this paper in the context of Behn and Rochester’s personal relationship as an example of gender dynamics in the Restoration.
In “A Song of a Young Lady to her Ancient Lover,” Rochester assumes the identity of a woman and speaks from the point of view of a female narrator smitten with a man much older than her. Within this narrative, Rochester expertly balances a loving tone describing the affection between the young lover and her elderly partner, while also humorously noting the sexual misadventures in their relationship:
Thy nobler parts which but to name
In owr Sex would be Counted shame,
By ages frozen grasp possest
From their Ice shall be releast
And sooth’d by my reviveing hand
In former warmth and Vigour stand.7
In this stanza, Rochester, amidst his characteristic lewd verse, provides an excellent account of how gender roles were construed in Restoration England. In the first two lines, he directly addresses certain taboos which can be discussed by men but not women, noting the limitations surrounding female speech. Furthermore, in this scenario, the young lover gladly shoulders the burden of providing pleasure to her ancient lover by returning him to his “former warmth and Vigour.” Rochester, as a male author, provides a construction of typical gender roles where the woman is an able and willing sexual servant to her male counterpart. It is through this witty poem that the reader not only receives an account of love within a drastic age disparity, but also a demonstration of gender roles in the Restoration a la Rochester.
In Behn
As mentioned previously, Aphra Behn emerged as a notable figure of the Restoration, contributing many works as the first professional female playwright and poet. In this male-dominated environment, Behn proved her mettle and matched the risqué style of her contemporary Rochester, a distinct contrast to other female writers of the period who favored more modest subject matter. As a result of conscribing to obscenity of the libertine movement, Behn faced substantial criticism. Janet Todd notes, “Behn was most often damned for monstrously writing like men; she was castigated as personally unfeminine by major authors such as Pope, Johnson, and Richardson.”8 This characterization of Behn as “unfeminine” attests to the gendered expectations for women to write specifically in a modest style. Behn significantly deviated from such gender norms first, through her professional career as a writer in itself, and second, through her daring choice to write within an obscene libertine framework. Similar to Rochester’s piece, Behn’s “On a Juniper Tree, cut down to make Busks” addresses the liberalizing sexual environment of the Restoration while simultaneously providing an authentic female perspective on the gender roles and expectations in that same period.
In “On a Juniper Tree, cut down to make Busks,” Behn narrates through the eponymous juniper tree whose shade provides shelter and privacy to a pair of lovers, Philocles and Cloris, who copulate beneath its branches. The tree observes their interchange and comments on the gender dynamics of their intercourse, lamenting the aggressive approach of Philocles:
Impatient he waits no consent
But what she gave by languishment,
The blessed minute he pursued,
Whilst love her fear and shame subdued;
And now transported in his arms,
Yields to the conqueror all her charms,9
In this observation, Philocles, using his male prowess to elicit sexual gains from Cloris, is later described as a “conqueror” who “waits no consent.” This clearly outlines gender roles in sexual encounters of the male as a dominant figure over a more submissive female persona. However, this scene is not portrayed as a rape, and it is important to note that Cloris is in fact a willing partner to Philocles. Nevertheless, Behn’s depiction of a sexual encounter in this manner aligns with the libertine attitudes of the period which considered women primarily through their outward appearance as a means to sexual pleasure. Another intriguing facet of this poem is the fate of the narrating juniper tree.
At the end of this poem, Cloris harvests the narrator and utilizes the wood of the juniper tree to create busks, defined as strips of wood or other rigid material “attached vertically to the front section of a corset so as to stiffen and support it. Hence, occasionally the corset itself.”10 In this case, the voyeuristic juniper tree serves a final purpose of guarding the female figure Cloris: “My body into busks was turned: / Where I still guard the sacred store, / And of Loves temple keep the door.”11 This provides an intriguing turn of events where the narrator, after witnessing the intercourse of Cloris and Philocles, becomes a mechanism of preserving modesty surrounding the female figure, or at minimum, a barrier for future male lovers. In sum, the martyrdom of the juniper tree to serve and protect Cloris perhaps constitutes Behn’s response to libertine patterns of behavior in the Restoration that continually prioritized sexual encounters from a male viewpoint and minimized the female’s position.
In Rochester and Behn
Though Behn’s and Rochester’s bodies of work independently hold significant merit and explicate the sexual dynamics of gender roles in the Restoration, it is through their correspondence and interplay that the most interesting expose is found. More than simple contemporaries, it is believed that Rochester and Behn were acquaintances, though the substance of their relationship is up for debate. Regardless, Behn did emerge into literary prominence close to the end of Rochester’s life, and did so by matching the poetic stature of the libertine writers of the day. Ros Ballaster attests, “Behn’s ability to charm on paper is indicated by the fact that a number of Behn’s poems were published in the miscellany Poems Upon Several Occasions of 1680 on Rochester’s death, and a number were ascribed to his pen for many years.”12 Behn writes one such poem, “The Disappointment,” in response to a Rochester piece “The Imperfect Enjoyment.” Both these works construct a narrative in which, amidst intercourse, the man experiences impotence; however, Behn and Rochester each describe this unfortunate occurrence through a female and male lens, respectively. Alone, each poem would provide an interesting illustration of the gender roles and sexual dynamics of the Restoration, but together, the literary, historical, and cultural importance is greatly amplified.
In these two poems, the gender roles and libertine culture of the Restoration can be best analyzed through a comparison of two excerpts within the narratives of impotence. First, in “The Imperfect Enjoyment,” Rochester guides his narrator through initial moments of shame as his female partner chastises him for his inability to perform, yet this is quickly followed by rage, not directed at the woman but rather at the narrator himself and his own inability. Similarly, in “The Disappointment,” upon discovering his impotence, the male figure Lysander is notably upset and disappointed; however, the woman Cloris has a much stronger reaction to her lover’s inability and proceeds to flee the scene.
“The Imperfect Enjoyment” “The Disappointment”
When, with a thousand kisses wandering o’er Than Cloris her fair hand withdrew,
My panting bosom, “Is there then no more?” Finding that god of her desires
She cries. “All this to love and rapture’s due; Disarmed of all his awful fires,
Must we not pay a debt to pleasure too?” And cold as flowers bathed in the morning dew.
But I, the most forlorn, lost man alive, Who can the nymph’s confusion guess?
To show my wished obedience vainly strive: The blood forsook the hinder place,
I sigh, alas! And kiss, but cannot swive. And strewed with blushes all her face,
Eager desires confound my first intent Which both disdain and shame expressed:
Succeeding shame does more success prevent, And from Lysander’s arms she fled,
And rage at last confirms me impotent.13 Leaving him fainting on the gloomy bed.14
The contrasting reactions in these two excerpts gives insight to the gender dynamics of the period. Although each poem is written in a humorous nature, one notes the distinctly different reactions by the female figures in each poem. For Rochester, the woman exhibits slight exasperation at her male partner’s shortcomings, but the remainder of the poem centers on the man’s shame and rage at his impotence in authentic romantic situations. Admittedly, such an occurrence would provide substantial embarrassment for the male figure involved, which Rochester adequately illustrates. Yet, he fails to fully portray the emotions experienced by the woman in this poem. Following her initial quote of frustration, the female figure melts away in the rest of the narrative, leaving the man’s perspective to take precedence, in contrast to Behn’s poem which instead favors the female reaction.
Rather than focus on the male persona’s range of negative emotions, Behn considers the disappointment and embarrassment experienced by her female figure Cloris at being rudely withdrawn from a sexual encounter by her partner’s failure to perform. Consenting to intercourse and then being thoroughly disappointed would have undoubtedly left Cloris with a rash of complex, negative emotions. Behn alludes to such reactions in the above excerpt. This offers an invaluable perspective in a Restoration environment otherwise dominated by male writers. As previously mentioned, while Behn was not the sole female writer of the period, she was the only woman to match the risqué nature of libertine authorship and challenge the male monopoly in that area of literature. Through “The Disappointment,” Behn offers authentic female representation in the sexual arena of 17th century England. Although, Rochester creatively and expertly speaks through women narrators in poems like the aforementioned “A Song of a Young Lady to her Ancient Lover,” he cannot recreate the authenticity found in Behn’s writings. As such, Behn’s poetry grants a refreshing, valid representation of female opinion within a libertine environment that otherwise does not give sufficient voice to women of the period.
Conclusion
The environment of Restoration England housed a significant trend of sexual liberalization as represented in the libertine attitudes and writings of Rochester, Behn, and others. This change was catalyzed by the reinstatement of Charles II to the throne of England along with the first allowance of female actors on the British stage. This introduction into the public sphere created a more visible role for women in the latter half of the 17th century, creating an increased focus on the outward female appearance and an eventual increased sexualization of the female form. As represented through portraiture, Behn’s poetry, and Rochester’s writings, the libertine climate of Restoration England elevated the circulation of risqué art and literature. It is through these mediums that one constructs a knowledge of Restoration-era gender roles.
The emergence of women onto the stage and the prolific stance of Aphra Behn as the first professional female writer are notable achievements that can be lauded as significant occurrences in a timeline toward gender equality. However, these two events existed within an environment that primarily prized male sexual pleasure and emotion. The entrance of women into the public sphere precipitated rampant sexualization of the female exterior and further stratified the two sexes. Rochester serves as an embodiment of the libertine attitudes which furthered the sexually liberalizing environment. Additionally, expectations of Behn to write in a feminine manner and the subsequent criticism received when she deviated from that norm also attest to a fortification of the existing binary that informed the gender roles of the Restoration. The works of Behn and Rochester serve as witness to the sharp change experienced by Restoration England when women began to appear more in the public sphere. However, this shift did not result in a move toward gender equality; rather, it morphed the existing gender roles and placed them in a more visible and sexualized context. This does not mean that the female figure had not previously been sexualized, rather, that it became more apparent and well-documented through this period, as facilitated by libertinism. This trend represents an integral moment in a timeline toward gender equality, one that should not be viewed as a direct precursor to any particular movement. Instead, it should be branded a contributing factor to the complex culture surrounding gender roles and sexuality in the modern era, one that must be considered when grappling with current stereotypes and inequalities.
1. Stephen Greenblatt, The Norton Anthology of English Literature v. 1, ed. Stephen Greenblatt (New York: W.W. Norton & Company Ltd., 2012), 2296.
2. Will Pritchard, Outward Appearances: The Female Exterior in Restoration London (Lewisburg: Bucknell University Press, 2008), 22.
3. Ibid., 27.
4. Sir Peter Lely. Arthur Capel, 1st Earl of Essex; Elizabeth, Countess of Essex. c. 1655-1660, oil on canvas, National Portrait Gallery, London. Retrieved from https://www.npg.org.uk/collections/search/portraitLarge/mw07351/Arthur-Capel-1st-Earl-of-Essex-Elizabeth-Countess-of-Essex?LinkID=mp02697&role=art&rNo=7
5. Steven N. Zwicker, “Lord Rochester: a life in gossip,” in Lord Rochester in the Restoration World, ed. Matthew C. Augustine and Steven N. Zwicker (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015), 79.
6. Tim Harris, “Sexual and religious libertinism in Restoration England,” in Lord Rochester in the Restoration World, ed. Matthew C. Augustine and Steven N. Zwicker (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015), 163.
7. John Wilmot, 2nd Earl of Rochester, “A Song of a Young Lady to her Ancient Lover,” in The Works of John Wilmot, Earl of Rochester ed. Harold Love (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), 30.
8. Janet Todd. “Behn, Aphra [Aphara],” Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (2004), doi: 10.1093.
9. Aphra Behn, “On a Juniper Tree, cut down to make Busks,” in Aphra Behn: Selected Poems, ed. Malcolm Hicks (New York: Routledge, 2003), 8.
10. “Busk, n. 3,” Oxford English Dictionary, Accessed December 9, 2017. http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/25232?rskey=0GOTWj&result=3&isAdvanced=false#eid.
11. Aphra Behn, “On a Juniper Tree, cut down to make Busks,” in Aphra Behn: Selected Poems, ed. Malcolm Hicks (New York: Routledge, 2003), 9.
12. Ros Ballaster, “Rochester, Behn and Enlightenment liberty.” In Lord Rochester in the Restoration World, ed. Matthew C. Augustine and Steven N. Zwicker. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015), 210-11.
13. John Wilmot, 2nd Earl of Rochester, “The Imperfect Enjoyment,” in The Norton Anthology of English Literature v. 1, ed. Stephen Greenblatt (New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 2012), 2299.
14. Aphra Behn, “The Disappointment,” The Norton Anthology of English Literature v. 1, ed. Stephen Greenblatt (New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 2012), 2312.
Bibliography
Ballaster, Ros, “Rochester, Behn and Enlightenment liberty.” In Lord Rochester in the Restoration World, edited by Matthew C. Augustine and Steven N. Zwicker, 207. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015.
Behn, Aphra, “On a Juniper Tree, cut down to make Busks.” In Aphra Behn: Selected Poems, edited by Malcolm Hicks, 7. New York: Routledge, 2003.
Behn, Aphra, “The Disappointment.” In The Norton Anthology of English Literature v. 1, edited by Stephen Greenblatt, 2310. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 2012.
“Busk, n. 3.” Oxford English Dictionary. Accessed December 9, 2017. http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/25232?rskey=0GOTWj&result=3&isAdvanced=false#e.
Greenblatt, Stephen. The Norton Anthology of English Literature v. 1, Edited by Stephen Greenblatt. New York: WW. Norton & Company, 2012.
Harris, Tim, “Sexual and religious libertinism in Restoration England.” In Lord Rochester in the Restoration World, edited by Matthew C. Augustine and Steven N. Zwicker, 162. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015.
Lely, Sir Peter, Arthur Capel, 1st Earl of Essex; Elizabeth, Countess of Essex. c. 1655-1660, National Portrait Gallery, London. Retrieved from https://www.npg.org.uk/collections/search/portraitLarge/mw07351/Arthur-Capel-1st-Earl-of-Essex-Elizabeth-Countess-of-Essex? LinkID=mp02697&role=art&rNo=7.
Pritchard, Will. Outward Appearances: The Female Exterior in Restoration London. Lewisburg: Bucknell University Press, 2008.
Todd, Janet. “Behn, Aphra [Aphara].” Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, (2004): doi: 10.1093
Wilmot, John, “A Song of a Young Lady to her Ancient Lover.” In The Works of John Wilmot, Earl of Rochester, edited by Harold Love, 30. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999.
Wilmot, John, “The Imperfect Enjoyment.” In The Norton Anthology of English Literature v. 1, edited by Stephen Greenblatt, 2298. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 2012.
Zwicker, Steven N., “Lord Rochester: a life in gossip.” In Lord Rochester in the Restoration World, edited by Matthew C. Augustine and Steven N. Zwicker, 79. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015.